Summary
Western Sahara is a former Spanish colony that is the focus of an ongoing territorial dispute between Morocco, which claims sovereignty over the area, and the Polisario Front, a nationalist group that seeks to assert the region’s independence. From 1978 until 1991, the Polisario Front waged a low-grade guerilla war against the Moroccan presence in Western Sahara. A United Nations-monitored cease-fire ended the armed conflict in 1991. Although the United Nations (U.N.) has repeatedly attempted to organize a referendum on independence, international mediators have not been able to broker an agreement between the two sides on a specific timetable for such a referendum nor on voter eligibility requirements. The dispute has affected Moroccan-Algerian relations and regional cooperation in general.
Background/Context
Western Sahara became a Spanish possession in 1881. The territory is phosphate-rich and may possess oil deposits. Starting in 1973, the Polisario Front waged a guerilla war against Spain in an attempt to end its colonial occupation of Western Sahara and establish an independent Sahrawi state. Morocco annexed Western Sahara after Spain relinquished colonial control over the territory in 1975. Later that year, the International Court of Justice rejected Morocco and Mauritania’s territorial claims and recognized Western Sahara’s right to self-determination. Spain agreed to organize a referendum on independence. In November 1975, however, King Hassan II ordered a “Green March” of over 300,000 Moroccans into Sahrawi territory. Later that month, Spain negotiated a deal with Morocco and Mauritania known at the Madrid Accord. Under the deal, Western Sahara was partitioned into two parts. Morocco received the northern two-thirds of territory, while Mauritania received the southern one-third of territory. In February 1976, the Polisario Front established the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) as the official government of Western Sahara.
In August 1978, a newly instated Mauritanian government signed a peace deal with the Polisario Front and relinquished its territorial claims. Morocco quickly took control of the former Mauritanian areas of Western Sahara. The Polisario Front then began to wage a guerilla war against Moroccan forces. Algeria allowed the insurgents to operate from its territory and also accepted a large number of Sahrawi refugees. In response to the insurgent threat, Morocco built a system of protective walls that encompasses three-quarters of Western Sahara’s territory. Although it continues to operate from Algeria, the SADR claims to control the Western Saharan territory on eastern side of the walls, referring to it as the “Free Zone.”
Past Initiatives
In 1991, a ceasefire between the Moroccan government and the Polisario Front went into effect. The United Nations (U.N.) Security Council established the U.N. Mission for a Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) to monitor the ceasefire and organize a referendum. MINURSO was allotted 1,000 civilian and 1,700 military personnel. After a brief transition period, the disputed territory was supposed to hold a referendum in January 1992 to decide if it wanted to declare independence or become part of Morocco. However, there was disagreement over the identification process for determining voter eligibility. The Polisario Front wanted to exclude Moroccans who settled in the Western Sahara after the Green March. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee was tasked with registering Western Saharan voters living outside of the territory.
In 1996, the U.N. recalled MINURSO’s civilian personnel and halted the identification process. In 1997, U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed former U.S. Secretary of State James Baker as his special envoy. He mediated talks between Morocco and Polisario over the four years that followed. The talks produced agreements on the exchange of POWs, a code of conduct for referendum campaigns, and the mandate of the U.N. during the transition process. The talks were deadlocked, however, on the issue of voter eligibility. In 1999, MINURSO identified 86,000 eligible voters. However, the organization received 130,000 appeals by Moroccan-born residents who felt disenfranchised. MINURSO worried that the appeals process could take considerably longer than the identification process and also expressed concern that it lacked the mandate to enforce the results of a referendum even if one were held.
In June 2001, Secretary Baker proposed a Framework Agreement (also known as the Third Way). Western Sahara would remain autonomous under Moroccan sovereignty for a four-year transition period. Western Sahara would retain control of its domestic affairs, while Morocco would be in charge of foreign policy, national security, and defense issues. After four years, a referendum would be held. Moroccan settlers would be granted voting rights if they were residents in Western Sahara for at least a year. Both the Polisario Front and Algeria rejected the deal because the electorate would favor integration with Morocco.
Frustrated by a lack of cooperation between Morocco and the Polisario Front, Secretary Baker suggested that the U.N. Security Council consider either imposing a non-consensual solution or partitioning the territory. The Security Council nonetheless continued to insist that any solution to the dispute be consensual. Morocco balked at the idea of partition, arguing that it would violate its territorial integrity and create an Algerian-dominated microstate. Morocco accused Algeria of seeking to gain access to the Atlantic Ocean for strategic and economic reasons.
In July 2003, Secretary Baker proposed an agreement in which a referendum would be held after a five-year transition period. The Sahrawi government-in-exile would be dismantled, while a Western Saharan Authority would assume local control in the interim period leading to the referendum. The U.N. would decide voter eligibility, which would include Moroccan settlers, and there would be no appeal process. Western Sahrawis would then have the choice of independence, autonomy within Morocco, or full integration. Morocco rejected the proposal, arguing that the referendum idea should be discarded and that local the interim government would given too much authority. The Polisario Front and Algeria accepted the agreement.
Note: Secretary Baker resigned his position in June 2004.
In 2004, negotiations remained deadlocked over the issue of voter eligibility, with each side attempting to ensure voters will select its desired outcome. Morocco refused to compromise its perceived territory integrity, while the Polisario Front refused to allow Moroccan settlers to participate in a referendum. Furthermore, Morocco insisted that the idea of a referendum should be discarded altogether. Meanwhile, the U.N. has attempted to implement confidence-building measures. In 2004, the organization established a telephone service between Western Sahara and refugee camps in Algeria and also coordinated family visits.
Current Situation
In 2005, former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan said that there was increased military activity on both sides, along with a number of violations of the prevailing cease-fire provisions.
Also in 2005, supporters of independence along with backers of a referendum participated in protests in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara. Police tried to put down the unrest while international human rights organizations expressed concern for abuse they alleged was deployed at by Moroccan security forces in so doing.
Pro-independence groups, including the Polisario, termed these demonstrations the name "Independence Intifada," but others have said the events hold limited significance. Nevertheless, demonstrations and protests still continued to occur even though Morocco declared in February 2006 that it was considering a plan to cede limited autonomy to Western Sahara, albeit without a referendum on independence.
In April 2007, Morocco moved forward with a plan for Western Sahara to become a self-governing entity. The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007. But the United Nations has called on the invested parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations aimed at forging a mutually accepted political solution.
Meanwhile, Polisario has threatened to resume fighting since it rejects anything short of full independence, although analysts believe that armed conflict would be unlikely without sanction from Algeria.
Foreign Policy Positions of Key Players
Morocco
Morocco considers Western Sahara as integral part of its territory and resisted any notion of cession, despite U.N. resolutions to the contrary. Morocco asserts that it has a legitimate claim to the territory on historical grounds that Sahrawi tribal leaders have traditionally been loyal to the Moroccan sultan. However, the International Court of Justice found these grounds insufficient for establishing Moroccan sovereignty. Many believe that Morocco would refuse to cede control of Western Sahara even if voters selected independence in a referendum. In November 2002, King Mohammed VI dismissed the idea of a referendum as “out of date since it cannot be implemented.” Although at present no country formally recognizes its sovereignty over Western Sahara, at least twenty-five countries have expressed support for Morocco’s territory integrity, which constitutes a de facto recognition
Polisario Front and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
Since 1973, the Polisario Front has claimed to be the sole representative of the Sahrawi people. In 1978, the Polisario Front established the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), which it considers the legitimate Sahrawi government-in-exile. Forty-six countries currently recognize the SADR. Twenty-three countries, for various reasons, have revoked their prior recognition of the SADR. The Polisario Front has consistently argued that Moroccans who moved to Western Sahara during the “Green March” should be excluded from any referendum on independence. In the Sahrawi view, only citizens identified in the 1974 Spanish census should be allowed to participate in a referendum. The SADR opposes the Moroccan government’s recent deal with French and American energy companies to explore the Saharan coast for oil. It is unlikely that the Polisario Front will mount another military campaign against Morocco without Algeria support. The Front’s military forces are very much outnumbered by Morocco’s.
Algeria
Algeria has provided the Polisario Front with material, financial, and political support since 1976. The Polisario Front has been given sanctuary by the Algerian government in the southwestern province of Tindouf, where there are currently 100,000 Sahrawis refugees in Polisario camps. Algeria believes that Sahrawis have a right to self-determination under the U.N. charter. Algeria’s policy position on the dispute is in part fueled by what it views as its historical legacy of supporting revolutionary and nationalist movements.
Mauritania
Recognizing that it would not be able to combat the Polisario Front, Mauritania abandoned its territorial claims to Western Sahara in 1979. It recognized the SADR in 1984.
African Union
The African Union (previously the Organization of African Unity) recognizes the SADR’s sovereign status. Western Sahara was admitted as a full member in 1984. Morocco subsequently left the organization in protest.
Arab League
The Arab League supports the preservation of Morocco’s territorial integrity, which many interpret as a de facto recognition of Moroccan sovereignty. Nonetheless, the Arab League has voiced some support for a negotiated settlement and a referendum on Western Sahara’s future status under U.N. auspices.
United Nations
The U.N. maintains that Western Sahara should be allowed self-determination through a referendum on independence. The U.N. considers Western Sahara as an occupied territory that has yet to be fully decolonized. Security Council resolution 1675 has extended MINURSO’s mandate until October 31, 2006. As of April 2006, there are 225 military personnel and 118 international civilian personnel.
The following countries currently contribute personnel to MINURSO: Argentina, Austria, Bangladesh, China, Croatia, Denmark, Egypt, El Salvador, France, Ghana, Greece, Guinea, Honduras, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Sri Lanka and Uruguay.
United States
The United States (U.S.) officially supports a negotiated settlement. Although the U.S. recognizes Morocco’s administrative control over most of Western Sahara, it does not recognize its sovereignty over that area. In 2005, George W. Bush informed King Mohammed VI that the U.S. would not “impose a solution” to the conflict. The U.S. views Morocco as an important moderate Arab ally that plays a constructive role in the global war on terrorism, the Israeli-Palestinian peace process, and regional democratization efforts. That said, the U.S. worries that the Western Sahara issue could destabilize King Mohammed VI’s regime if domestic opponents, including the Moroccan military, oppose his decisions on the matter.
Written by Ryan Holliway, Researcher and Writer, CountryWatch Inc. and Denise Youngblood Coleman, Editor in Chief, CountryWatch Inc.
Sources: U.S. State Department, United Nations Mission for a Referendum in Western Sahara, BBC, International Crisis Group, GlobalSecurity.org, Congressional Research Service.